About Narmada River:

• It is the largest west-flowing river in peninsular India.
• Of the major rivers of peninsular India, only the Narmada, the Tapti, and the Mahirun from east to west.
• It has long been an important route between the Arabian Sea and the Ganges (Ganga) River valley.
• The Narmada was called Namade by the 2nd-century-ce Greek geographer Ptolemy.
• Course:
  • The origin of the river is a tiny reservoir named Narmada Kund, which is situated on the Amarkantak Hill in East Madhya Pradesh at an elevation of 1,057 m on the border with Chhattisgarh.
  • The river flows through Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat between Vindhya and Satpura hill ranges before falling into the Gulf of Cambay in the Arabian Sea about 10 km north of Bharuch, Gujarat.
• Length: It is the fifth longest river of India.
• Narmada flows through the Hoshangabad plains, the Dhar upland, the Mahishmati plains, and the gorges at Mandhata and Murakta.
• The basin is bounded on the north by the Vindhyas, on the east by the Maikala range, on the south by the Satpuras, and on the west by the Arabian Sea.
• The Tropic of Cancer crosses the Narmada basin in the upper plains area, and a major part of the basin lies just below this line.
• It is one of the rivers that flow in a rift valley and acts as a divider between north India and south India.
• These rift valleys are the result of the faulting that took place when the northern flank of the Peninsula suffered subsidence.
• The river has numerous waterfalls, notably the Dhuandhar Falls, southwest of Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh.
• Tributaries:
  • The main tributaries of Narmada River are, namely, Hallon River, Banjar River, Barna River, and Tawa River.
  • The Tawa River is the longest tributary of the Narmada River.
• There are also numerous pilgrimage spots on the banks of the river, the most important among them are Mahewswar and Omkareshwar temples.
• There are several dams along the course of the river, including major hydroelectric projects, such as the Sardar Sarovar Dam, the Indira Sagar Dam, the Omkareshwar Dam, the Bargi Dam, and the Maheshwar Dam.

About INS Sindhukesari:

• It is a Kilo-class diesel-electric submarine of the Indian Navy.
• It was commissioned in 1988.
• It was designed as part of Project 877 and built under a contract between Rosvooruzhenie, Russia, and the Ministry of Defence (India).
• Features:
  • It has an operational endurance of up to 45 days.
  • It is armed with a combination of torpedoes, anti-ship missiles, and mines, and has been retrofitted to carry advanced Klub/3M-54E cruise missiles.

What are Kilo-class submarines?

• The Kilo Class is the NATO designation for a naval diesel-electric attack submarine designed and built by the Soviet Union (now Russia).
• The original version of the vessels were designated Project 877 Paltus (Halibut) in Russia.
• They are mainly intended for anti-shipping and anti-submarine operations in relatively shallow waters.
• The first Kilo Class submarine entered service in the Soviet Navy in 1980, and the vessel continues to be in service in the Russian Navy.
• These submarines are 70-74 meters long. It can travel at a maximum speed of 10-12 knots when surfaced and 17-25 knots when underwater.
• These vessels can carry up to eight surface-to-air missiles and 18 torpedoes or 14 underwater mines.
• Stealth: Known for extremely low noise levels, earning the nickname “Black Hole” among naval forces.

About Vitamin B12:

• It is a water-soluble
• It is also called cobalamin.
• It is a vitamin the body uses to make and support healthy nerve cells.
• It’s also used to make healthy red blood cells and the genetic material inside cells called DNA.
• The human body cannot produce B12 on its own, so it must be obtained through foods high in vitamin B12 or supplements.
• It is naturally found in animal foods such as fish, meat, poultry, eggs, milk, and milk products.
• It is not present in plant foods unless fortified.
• The body stores vitamin B12 in the liver.
• The body can store vitamin B12 for 2 to 5 years, and it can get rid of any excess or unwanted vitamin B12 in the urine.
• Vitamin B12 Deficiency: Deficiency is most common in people who:
  • Are over the age of 50
  • Follow a vegetarian or vegan diet
  • Have had stomach or intestinal surgery, such as weight loss surgery
  • Have digestive system conditions such as celiac disease or Crohn’s disease
  • Have pernicious anemia, an autoimmune condition that occurs when your body destroys cells in your stomach that make an intrinsic factor, which is needed to help your body absorb B12 efficiently.
• Low levels of B12 can cause:
  • Anemia
  • Loss of balance
  • Numbness or tingling in the arms and legs
  • Weakness
  • Dementia due to metabolic causes

About Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve (TATR):

• It is located in the Chandrapur district in Maharashtra.
• It is the largest and oldest tiger reserve in Maharashtra.
• Established in 1955, the reserve consists of Tadoba National Park and Andhari Wildlife Sanctuary.
• The word ‘Tadoba’ is derived from the name of the God “Tadoba” or “Taru,” which is praised by local tribal people of this region, and “Andhari” is derived from the name of the Andhari River that flows in this area.
• It has corridor linkages with Nagzira-Navegaon and Pench Tiger Reserves within the State.
• Drainage: There are two lakes and one waterway in the reserve: Tadoba Lake, Kolsa Lake, and the Tadoba River.
• Vegetation: The reserve falls in the central plateau province of the Deccan peninsula, with tropical dry deciduous forests and a typical central Indian faunal assemblage.
• Flora:
  • The major tree species are: Teak, Ain, Bamboo, Bija, Dhaoda, Haldu, Salai, Semal and Tendu.
  • Along the moist areas, species like Mango, Jamun and Arjun are found. Bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) is spread over 40% of the habitat.
• Fauna:
  • Apart from tigers, the reserve is home to Indian leopards, sloth bears, Indian gaur (bison), wild dogs (dholes), striped hyenas, marsh crocodiles, sambar deer, chital (spotted deer), barking deer, and four-horned antelopes (chousingha).
  • It is also a birdwatcher’s paradise, with over 250 species of birds, including crested serpent eagles, grey-headed fish eagles, paradise flycatchers, and hornbills.

About Notice to Airmen (NOTAM):

• Notice to Airmen, also known as Notice to Air Mission, is a notice containing information concerning the establishment, condition, or change in any aeronautical facility, service, procedure, or hazard, the timely knowledge of which is essential to personnel concerned with flight operations.
• In short, a NOTAM is a notification from an official body alerting airspace users to hazards along their route, both in the air and on the ground.
• NOTAMs update pilots about changes in airspace, airports, and equipment that affect aircraft operations.
• NOTAMs are issued by national aviation authorities for a number of reasons, such as:
  • Hazards such as air-shows, parachute jumps, and glider or micro-light flying;
  • Flights by important people such as heads of state;
  • Closed runways, taxiways, etc;
  • Unserviceable radio navigational aids;
  • Military exercises with resulting airspace restrictions;
  • Unserviceable lights on tall obstructions;
  • Temporary erection of obstacles near airfields (e.g. cranes).
• For reasons of conciseness and precision, NOTAMs are encoded, although the code is usually sufficiently self-evident to allow the user to identify a hazard.
• NOTAMs are communicated by the issuing agency using the fastest available means to all addressees for whom the information is assessed as being of direct operational significance, and who would not otherwise have at least seven days’ prior notification.
• NOTAMs are typically accessible through online platforms, electronic flight planning tools, and aviation weather services, allowing pilots to conveniently access up-to-date information and make informed decisions regarding their flight activities.
• Pilots who do not review NOTAMs before flight put themselves (and others) in danger.

About Project Deepak:

• It was initiated in 1962 by the Border Roads Organisation.
• The project has been instrumental in executing critical infrastructure works in some of the most challenging terrains of the country.
• It’s area of responsibility spanning key districts of Himachal Pradesh including Shimla, Kinnaur, Kullu and Lahaul-Spiti.
• Achievements:
  • Project Deepak- one of the oldest projects- has also been at the forefront of developing critical infrastructure such as Hindustan-Tibet Road and key stretches of Manali-Leh axis.
  • In addition to infrastructure development, this project has demonstrated exceptional commitment towards disaster management and humanitarian assistance.

Key Facts about Border Roads Organisation

• It is a road construction executive force in India that provides support to the Indian Armed Forces.
• BRO was entirely brought under the Ministry of Defence in 2015.
• Establishment: It was formed on 7 May 1960 to secure India’s borders and develop infrastructure in remote areas of the north and northeastern states of the country.
• It develops and maintains road networks in India’s border areas and friendly neighboring countries.
• Motto: Shramena Sarvam Sadhyam (everything is achievable through hard work).

About Germanium:

• It has the chemical symbol Ge and the atomic number 32.
• It is a silvery-gray metalloid, intermediate in properties between the metals and the nonmetals. 
• Properties of Germanium:
  • It has a diamond like crystalline structure, and it is similar in chemical and physical properties to silicon. 
  • It is stable in air and water and is unaffected by alkalis and acids, except nitric acid.
  • It is widely distributed in nature but is too reactive to occur free.
• Germanium ores are rare. They are found in small quantities as the minerals germanite and argyrodite.
• It is extracted as a by-product of zinc production and from coal fly ash. 
• It is estimated that 75% of world wide production of germanium is sourced from zinc ores, mainly the zinc sulfide mineral sphalerite, and 25% from coal.
• Applications: Its main use is to produce solid-state electronics, semiconductors and fiber optic systems, components for devices such as rectifiers and photocells.
• Major Producers: 
  • The major worldwide producer of germanium is China, responsible for around 60% of total production. 
  • The remaining production of germanium comes from Canada, Finland, Russia, and the United States.

About Electronic Gold Receipts:

• EGRs are dematerialised securities that represent ownership of physical gold.
• The underlying gold is stored in SEBI-regulated vaults, and investors hold the receipts in their demat accounts — similar to shares or ETFs.
• Vault Manager is a new entity registered by SEBI for providing vaulting services for gold deposited for the purpose of creation of EGR.
• Each EGR is backed by actual gold, ensuring authenticity and standardisation.
• It is operated under SEBI guidelines.
• Working of Electronic Gold Receipts:
  • The process starts with depositing physical gold at accredited vaults, which is then converted into EGR units.
  • These units are credited to a demat account and can be traded on the exchange.
  • Investors can also convert EGRs back into physical gold, offering flexibility between digital and physical ownership.
  • Participated By: The EGR ecosystem is designed for a wide set of participants, including jewellers, refiners, traders, and retail and institutional investors.

About Asian Development Bank:

• It is a multilateral development bank established on 19th December 1966.
• It is the principal international development finance institution for the Asia-Pacific region.
• It envisions a prosperous, inclusive, resilient, and sustainable Asia and the Pacific, while sustaining its efforts to eradicate extreme poverty in the region.
• Its membership is open to other regional countries and non-regional developed countries that are members of the U.N. or of any of its specialized agencies.
• Members: 69 (50 regional, 19 non-regional).
• Headquarters: Manila, Philippines.
• Governance:
  • Board of Governors: One representative from each member country; top policy-making body.
  • Board of Directors: Twelve directors manage operations; eight from regional members, four from non-regional members.
  • President: Chairs the Board of Directors and manages ADB
  • Voting System: Weighted voting based on each country’s capital contribution.
    • Key Shareholders: Five shareholders are Japan and the USA (each with 15.6% of total shares), China (6.4%), India (6.3%), and Australia (5.8%).
  • Functions of Asian Development Bank
    • Provides Loans: It provides loans and grants to member countries for development projects in infrastructure, social sectors, and environmental sustainability.
    • Technical Assistance: It offers technical assistance and advisory services to improve policy-making, governance, and institutional capacity.
    • Regional Cooperation: It promotes regional cooperation and integration by funding cross-border projects and encouraging trade and investment.
    • Supports private sector: It supports development of private sector by providing financing, guarantees, equity, and mezzanine funds for socially beneficial projects.

About Philippines:

• Location: It is an island country of Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean.
• Water Bodies: It is surrounded by the South China (north and west); Philippine Sea (east); Celebes Sea (south); and by the Sulu Sea to the (southwest). 
• Capital city: Manila
• Geographical Features of Philippines:
  • Climate: It majorly consists of tropical and monsoonal type of climate.
  • Highest Point: Mount Apo.
  • Major Rivers: Cagayan River (Philippines’ longest river), Mindanao, Agusan etc.
  • Major Lake: Laguna de Bay
  • Volcano: Mayon Volcano, one of the most active in the country. Other volcanoes are Bulusan and Kanlaon.
  • Natural resources: Timber, petroleum, nickel, cobalt, silver, gold, salt, copper
  • The Philippines is the third-largest producer of geothermal energy globally, after the United States and Indonesia.

About Dimethyl Ether:

• It is a synthetically produced alternative to diesel for use in specially designed compression ignition diesel engines.
• Properties of Dimethyl Ether:
  • High Cetane Number: It has a very high cetane number, which is a measure of the fuel’s ignitibility in compression ignition engines.
  • Under normal atmospheric conditions, DME is a colorless gas.
  • Clean Burning: It burns cleaner, emitting minimal amounts of soot, nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), and particulate matter.
  • Thermal efficiency: It exhibits thermal efficiency that is comparable to traditional fuels, making it a viable substitute
  • Alternate Fuel: It can be a viable alternative fuel and engine technology to adapt to conventional diesel engines used in India’s economy’s agricultural and transport sectors.
• Application of Dimethyl Ether:
  • It is used extensively in the chemical industry and as an aerosol propellant.
  • It is used in chemical industries and also to produce dyes and plastics.

About CARICOM:

• CARICOM, which stands for Caribbean Community, is the oldest surviving integration movement in the developing world.
• It is an organization of Caribbean countries and dependencies originally established as the Caribbean Community and Commons Market in 1973 by the Treaty of Chaguaramas.
• Main Purposes:
  • Promote economic integration and cooperation among its members;
  • To ensure that the benefits of integration are equitably shared;
  • To coordinate foreign policy;
• It replaced the former Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA), which had become effective in 1968.
• The treaty spurred the development of associate institutions, including the Caribbean Development Bank and the Organization of East Caribbean States, both of which promote economic growth and cooperation.
• In 2001 the heads of government revised the Treaty of Chaguaramas, establishing the Caribbean Community and the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME), which would harmonize economic policy and create a single currency.
• In 2007, CARICOM officially inaugurated the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ), which serves as the final court of appeal for CARICOM members and also handles regional trade disputes.
• Members:
  • It has 15 members; Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Montserrat, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago.
  • Of the 15, all except Montserrat are nation-states.
  • Anguilla, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, and Turks & Caicos Islands are associate members of the community.
• The chairmanship of the community is rotated every six months among the member countries’ heads.
• The permanent secretariat has its headquarters in Georgetown, Guyana.

About Mayon Volcano:

• It is an active stratovolcano located in Albay province on Luzon Island in the Philippines.
• It is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire.
• It is located on the eastern side of Luzon, beside the Philippine Trench, which is the convergent boundary where the Philippine Sea Plate is driven under the Philippine Mobile Belt.
• It is Philippines’ most active volcano.
• Popular with climbers and campers, the volcano is the centre of Mayon Volcano National Park.

What is a Stratovolcano?

• It is a tall, steep, and cone-shaped type of volcano.
• Unlike flat shield volcanoes, they have higher peaks.
• They are typically found above subduction zones, and they are often part of large volcanically active regions, such as the Ring of Fire that frames much of the Pacific Ocean.
• Stratovolcanoes comprise the largest percentage (~60%) of the Earth’s individual volcanoes, and most are characterized by eruptions of andesite and dacite, lavas that are cooler and more viscous than basalt.
• These more viscous lavas allow gas pressures to build up to high levels. Therefore, these volcanoes often suffer explosive eruptions.
• They are usually about half-half lava and pyroclastic material, and the layering of these products gives them their other common name of composite volcanoes.
• At the peak, stratovolcanoes usually have a small crater.

About Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP):

• It is located near Borivali in the northern part of Mumbai.
• It is situated partly in the Thane District and in the Mumbai Suburban District of Maharashtra.
• In the early days, the park was known as Krishnagiri National Park. However, in 1974 the name of this park was changed to ‘Borivali National Park’ and in 1981 to ‘Sanjay Gandhi National Park’.
• It is one of the largest parks in the world located within city limits. It forms roughly 20% of Mumbai city's geographical area.
• The Kanheri Caves in the center of the park were an important Buddhist learning center and pilgrimage site sculpted by Buddhist monks between the 9th and the 1st centuries BCE.
  • They were chiseled out of a massive basaltic rock outcropping.
  • Caves feature viharas, stupas, prayer halls, and other structures of old-style Buddhist architecture.
  • There is a Jain Temple with three huge carved idols situated on the way to the caves.
• Besides, the park also has two lakes, namely Tulsi Lake and Vihar Lake, the deer park, the lion safari, and the Samadhi of Mahatma Gandhi.
• Flora:
  • Kadamba, Teak, Karanj, Shisham, and species of acacia, Ziziphus, euphorbias, etc. are found in this National Park.
  • The most famous of these is the karvi plant, which blooms just once every eight years.
• Fauna:
  • Leopard, sambar, chital, barking deer, rusty spotted cat, hyena, common palm civet, small Indian civet, Indian crested porcupine, Indian hare, Indian flying fox, common langur, and bonnet macaque.
  • The park also boasts 251 species of birds and a large variety of butterflies.

About Debt Recovery Tribunals:

• DRTs are quasi-judicial bodies established under the Recovery of Debts Due to Banks and Financial Institutions Act, 1993.
• Role: Their primary role is adjudicating debt recovery disputes related to banks and financial institutions.
• DRTs handle loan default cases above ₹20 lakh, focusing on secured debts.
• DRTs also hear Securitisation Applications (SAs) filed under the SARFAESI Act, 2002 by borrowers or aggrieved parties.
• There are currently 39 DRTs functioning across India, each headed by a Presiding Officer.
• Composition:
  • A DRT is presided over by a judicial officer qualified to be a District Judge.
  • It can also have administrative and technical members appointed by the Central Government.
• Powers of DRTs
  • Summon and examine witnesses,
  • Compel the production of documents,
  • Receive evidence on affidavits,
  • Review or dismiss applications,
  • Conduct ex parte proceedings,
  • Issue commissions for document and witness examination.
  • Jurisdiction of DRTs: Each DRT has a territorial jurisdiction defined by the Central Government.
  • Jurisdiction is limited to cases involving debt recovery by banks and financial institutions.

About Hantavirus:

• Hantavirus is a strain of virus carried by rodents.
• Transmission: It is transmitted to humans through inhalation of particles from dried rodent droppings.
• People most typically become infected when virus in rodent droppings, saliva and urine becomes airborne.
• The virus is known to cause two severe illnesses one that primarily affects the lungs and the other that attacks the kidneys. 
  • Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS): It is respiratory illness and has a high fatality rate of about 40%.
  • Haemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome (HFRS), which is a more severe infection and impacts the kidneys. Symptoms can include low blood pressure, internal bleeding, and acute kidney failure.
• Symptoms:
  • Hantavirus usually begins with flu-like symptoms, such as fatigue and fever, one to eight weeks after exposure, according to the CDC.
  • Four to 10 days later, coughing, shortness of breath and fluid in the lungs appear.
• Treatment: There is no specific therapy for hantavirus infection, so treatment focuses on supportive care including rest and fluids.

About Rashtriya Bal Swasthya Karyakram:

• It was launched in 2013 under National Rural Health Mission.
• It is a program to improve the overall quality of life of children and provide comprehensive care to all the children in the community.
• Target Group: This program involves screening of children from birth to 18 years of age for four Ds- Defects at birth, Diseases, Deficiencies and Development delays.
• Under this programme, its screening spans 32 common health conditions for early detection and free treatment and management, including surgeries at tertiary level.
• Major strategies followed are:
  • Comprehensive newborn screening – at delivery points to screen birth defects of the newborn
  • Community screening at the Anganwadi and Government schools for children in the age group 0 -18 years in convergence with Ministry of Women and Child Development and Ministry of Education
  • Screening of the newborns/infants by ASHA through the HBNC/HBYC program as a part of Early Childhood Development
  • Therapeutic management of the identified children at the District Early Intervention Centres (DEIC)

Key Feature of RBSK 2.0

• It has expanded screening scope, covering a wider range of conditions including,
  • Developmental disorders, mental health issues, behavioural concerns, lifestyle risks, risk factors for non-communicable diseases such as diabetes and hypertension, and additional conditions like kidney disorders, 
• It has introduces digital health cards, real-time data systems, and integrated platformsfor tracking, monitoring and service delivery.

About Bureau of Indian Standards:

• It is the national standard body of India established under the Bureau of Indian Standards Act 2016.
• Objective: It was established for the harmonious development of the activities of standardization, marking, and quality certification of goods and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
  • It is the successor of the Indian Standards Institution (ISI), which was created in 1947.
• BIS represents India in International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
• Nodal Ministry: It functions under the administrative control of the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution.
• Headquarter: It is headquartered in New Delhi and maintains regional and branch offices throughout the country.
• Functions of Bureau of Indian Standards
  • BIS has been providing traceability and tangibility benefits to the national economy in a number of ways by
    • Providing safe, reliable quality goods; 
    • Minimizing health hazards to consumers; 
    • Promoting exports and imports substitute; control over proliferation of varieties etc. through standardization, certification, and testing.
  • It operates product certification schemes through which it grants licenses to manufacturers covering practically every industrial discipline, from agriculture and textiles to electronics.

About Exercise CINBAX-II:

• It is the bilateral military exercise conducted between the Indian Army and the Cambodian Army.
• It is conducted in Kampong Speu Province, Cambodia.
• Participating Contingent: The Indian Army contingent comprises of 120 personnel, majorly from a Battalion of the Maratha Light Infantry Regiment.
• The exercise will be conducted under the framework of Chapter VII of UN Mandate, showcasing Company level joint training for conduct of operations in sub-conventional environment.
• CINBAX-II aims to boost interoperability, coordination, and operational synergy between the two forces.
• It will also serve as a platform to exchange best practices and share operational experiences, particularly in semi-urban combat environments.
• It will centre on counter-terrorism operations aligned with real-world UN peacekeeping scenarios. 
• Significance: The exercise underscores the growing defence ties between India and Cambodia and is expected to deepen bilateral relations.

About Mission Drishti:

• It is the world’s first multi-sensor Earth observation (EO) satellite.
• It is India’s largest privately built satellite and also the highest-resolution satellite developed in the country.
• It is developed by the Bengaluru-based space startup – GalaxEye.
• Key Features of Mission Drishti:
  • It is the world’s first OptoSAR satellite, combining electro-optical (EO) and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) sensors into a single platform.
  • While EO sensors capture high-resolution images in daylight and clear skies, SAR enables imaging in all weather conditions and at any time using radar pulses.
  • It is engineered as a remote-sensing Earth observation system, optimised for spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to capture high-precision imagery.
  • The satellite weighs 190 kg and offers 1.5 metre resolution.
  • Range of applications: It will enable governments, defence agencies and industries to perform advanced geospatial analysis across a wide range of applications, including;
  • Border surveillance, disaster management, defence, infrastructure monitoring, agriculture financial and insurance assessment etc..

About Great Himalayan National Park (GHNP):

• It is a high altitude national park located in Kullu District of Himachal Pradesh.
• Nestled in the far Western Himalayas, the park comprises four valleys: the Tirthan Valley, the Sainj Valley, the Parvati Valley, and the Jiwa Nal Valley.
• It is surrounded by steep ridges and permanent snow on its northern, eastern, and southern
• The GHNP is situated adjacent to Pin Valley National Park, Rupi-Bhaba Wildlife Sanctuary, and the Tirthan and Sainj Wildlife Sanctuaries.
• Topography: The park is a stunning mix of lush coniferous forests, meadows, glaciers, and mountain peaks.
• It was awarded UNESCO World Heritage Site status in 2014.
• Flora:
  • Vegetation grows in well-defined altitude zones, beginning with rather open, subtropical forests at the lowest valley bottoms, gradually grading to mixed forests of horse chestnut, evergreen oak, spruce, and deodar, then to rusty-leaved kharsu oak, spruce, and fir in the upper temperate zone.
  • Further up is a subalpine zone of birches, stunted firs, and rhododendron bushes, followed by the higher alpine areas where vegetation is reduced to grasses, herbs, and low shrubs, such as juniper.
• Fauna:
  • The park is home to 31 mammals, including the elusive snow leopard, the majestic Himalayan brown bear, and the vibrant blue sheep, or bharal.
  • Other notable residents include the Himalayan tahr, musk deer, and serow.
  • Birdlife in the park is equally diverse, with 209 species recorded, such as the endangered western tragopan and the impressive lammergeiers, alongside the Himalayan griffon vulture and golden eagle.

About Ichak:

• Ichak is a small village in Jharkhand.
• Known as the “temple town” of Hazaribag district, Ichak is dotted with hundreds of ancient temples, ponds, and gardens, many of which today stand in a state of alarming neglect.
• Ichak’s origins trace back over two centuries to the Ramgarh Raj under the Singh dynasty.
• The rulers had established Ichak as one of their prominent capitals before shifting to areas near the Padma River.
• During their reign, they built an extensive network of temples, akharas (traditional centres), ponds, and gardens.
  • At the heart of Ichak’s main market stands the imposing Singh Dwar, a massive domed gateway that once marked the entrance to the royal palace.
  • From Baba Banshidhar and Bhairavnath temples to Lakshmi Narayan (Bada Akhara) and Shri Ram Janaki (Chota Akhara), each structure carries historical, architectural, and cultural value.
  • Ichak is also home to the Budhiya Mata Temple, where devotees worship a formless deity — a rare and unique tradition for over 300 years.
  • Bhagwati Math Temple reflects architectural influences akin to the Mahabodhi Temple, showcasing the artistic excellence of the past.
• The style of the temples reveals the Nagara and the Bengal styles of architecture. The mosque-type domes emphasize the Moghul influence on these temples.
• Historians and locals said that at one point, Ichak had nearly 174 temples. Today, only a fraction of them remain, and many of them have either lost their idols—allegedly stolen—or are on the verge of collapse.

About SVAMITVA Scheme:

• The Survey of Villages and Mapping with Improvised Technology in Village Areas (SVAMITVA) is a central sector scheme of the Ministry of Panchayati Raj.
• It was launched nationwide on National Panchayati Raj Day, 24th April 2021, after successful completion of the pilot phase of the scheme (2020-2021) in 9 states.
• It aims to empower rural citizens with property cards, enabling access to credit, dispute resolution, and better planning.
• It provides a ‘Record of Rights’ to village household owners with the issuance of legal ownership cards (property cards/title deeds) to the property owners by mapping land parcels using drone technology.
• The mapping shall be done across the country in a phased manner. It generates high-resolution and accurate maps to confer ownership property rights.
• The scheme seeks to achieve the following objectives:
  • To bring financial stability to the citizens in rural India by enabling them to use their property as a financial asset for taking loans and other financial benefits.
  • Creation of accurate land records for rural planning.
  • Determination of property tax, which would accrue to the Gram Panchayats (GPs) directly in States where it is devolved or else add to the State exchequer.
  • Creation of survey infrastructure and GIS maps that can be leveraged by any department for their use.
  • To support the preparation of a better-quality Gram Panchayat Development Plan (GPDP) by making use of GIS maps.
  • To reduce property-related disputes and legal cases.
• Eligibility: The applicant should have a property in a rural inhabited (Abadi) area.
• Exclusions: Agricultural lands are not covered under this scheme.
• Implementing Agency:
  • It is implemented by the Survey of India (SoI) with the National Informatics Centre Services Inc. (NICSI) as the technology partner.
  • In the States, the Revenue Department/Land Records Department will be the Nodal Department and shall carry out the scheme with the support of the State Panchayati Raj Department.

About Alleles:

• An allele is a variant form of a gene.
• Some genes have a variety of different forms, which are located at the same position, or genetic locus, on a chromosome.
• Humans are called diploid organisms because they have two alleles at each genetic locus, with one allele inherited from each parent.
• Each pair of alleles represents the genotype of a specific gene.
• Genotypes are described as homozygous if there are two identical alleles at a particular locus and as heterozygous if the two alleles differ.
• Alleles contribute to the organism's phenotype, which is the outward appearance of the organism.
• Some alleles are dominant or recessive. When an organism is heterozygous at a specific locus and carries one dominant and one recessive allele, the organism will express the dominant phenotype.
• This genetic diversity allows offspring to inherit traits from both parents while exhibiting unique characteristics.
• For example, in hair color, dark hair is typically dominant over light hair; a child may inherit light hair only if both parents pass on the recessive allele.
• All genetic traits are the result of the interactions of alleles.
• Mutation, crossing over, and environmental conditions selectively change the frequency of phenotypes (and thus their alleles) within a population.

About Udayan Fort:

• Udayan Fort, also known as Udayan Kila, is a historical site located in the Kaushambi district of Uttar Pradesh.
• It is located on the banks of the Yamuna River.
• The fort is associated with King Udayana, the ruler of the Vatsa kingdom—one of the 16 Mahajanapadas of ancient India.
• It served as the capital fort of the Vatsa kingdom during the 6th century BCE.
  • King Udayana was known for his military strength, diplomatic skills, and cultural patronage.
  • According to Buddhist and Jain texts, Udayana had connections with both Lord Buddha and Mahavira, who visited Kaushambi and contributed to its spiritual growth.
  • The fort thus played a key role in shaping the early political and religious landscape of the region.
• Architectural Remains and Layout:
  • The layout of the fort suggests a well-planned administrative and residential zone, complete with defensive structures and public buildings.
  • The defensive structures include thick brick walls, earth ramparts, and bastions rising up to 50 to 60 feet, along with evidence of protective moats or trenches.
  • The site is characterized by extensive brickbats scattered across the ground, hinting at the density of buildings that once stood inside the fortress.
  • Archaeologists have unearthed pottery, coins, and ancient tools from the area, providing evidence of a thriving settlement.

About Ecuador:

• Location: It is a country located on the northwestern edge of South America.
• Bordering countries: It is bordered by Colombia to the north, by Peru to the south and east.
• Maritime boundaries: It shares borders with the Pacific Ocean to the west.
• Capital City:
• Geographical Features of Ecuador
  • It consists of 4 geographic regions namely:
    • Coastal lowlands and mountain area; the Central Andes Mountainsand its two major chains Cordillera Occidental in the West and the Cordillera Oriental in the east.
  • Climate: Tropical along coast, becoming cooler inland at higher elevations; tropical in Amazonian jungle lowlands.
  • Highest Point: The highest point in Ecuador is Mount Chimborazo.
  • Volcano: Cotopaxi is one of the world’s highest active volcanoes located in the Andes Mountains.
  • Rivers:  Babahoyo, Chira, Coca, Curaray.
  • Natural resources: It mainly consists of Petroleum, fish, timber, hydropower

    India and Ecuador are looking at the possibility of firming up a preferential trade pact to boost economic ties.

About Spinal Muscular Atrophy:

• It is a rare and progressive neuromuscular disorder that leads to muscle weakness and can cause life-threatening complications. 
• It is a debilitating genetic condition which affects motor neurons that control movement, and leads to progressive muscle weakening.
• Cause: Most forms of SMA are caused by mutations of the survival motor neuron 1 gene (SMN1) on the fifth chromosome, resulting in insufficient expression levels of the SMN protein.
• Types of SMA: There are five subtypes of SMA- type 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. Healthcare providers classify them based on the age of onset, as well as the severity and life expectancy.
• Symptoms of Spinal Muscular Atrophy:
  • Its symptoms vary and may be mild or disabling, but involve a weakness of the muscles that control movement.
  • The weakness in SMA tends to be more severe in the muscles that are close to the center of your body than in the muscles farther away from your body’s center.
  • Treatment: Unfortunately, there isn’t a cure for SMA. Treatment for SMA mainly seeks to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

About Atomic Energy Regulatory Board:

• It is India’s premier regulatory authority for nuclear and radiation safety.
• Background: It was constituted on November 15, 1983, by the President of India by exercising the powers conferred by the Atomic Energy Act, 1962.
  • The regulatory authority of AERB is derived from the rules and notifications promulgated under the Atomic Energy Act and the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
• Objective: To ensure the use of ionizing radiation and nuclear energy in India does not cause undue risk to the health of people and the environment.
• Headquarters: Mumbai.
• Composition:
  • It comprises six members of which two are whole time members including the chairman. 
  • The other whole-time member is the executive director of the AERB Secretariat who is an ex-officio member of the Board. 
  • The other four members are eminent experts from various disciplines relevant to the mandate of the board.
  • The Board shall be responsible to the Atomic Energy Commission.
• Functions of AERB:
  • Develop safety policies in nuclear, radiation and industrial safety areas for facilities under its purview.
  • Develop Safety Codes, Guides and Standards for siting, design, construction, commissioning, operation and decommissioning of different types of nuclear and radiation facilities.
  • Grant consents for siting, construction, commissioning, operation and decommissioning, after an appropriate safety review and assessment, for establishment of nuclear and radiation facilities.
  • It shall have authority to administer the provisions of the Factories Act, 1948, the industrial safety for the units of Department of Atomic Energy (DAE).

About Padma Doree:

• It is a unique cross-cultural textile initiative that brings together the Eri (Ahimsa) silk traditions of Northeast India with the rich Chanderi weaving heritage of Madhya Pradesh.
• It aims to promote sustainable textiles, strengthen cross-regional craft collaboration, and create new livelihood opportunities for artisans while showcasing India’s rich textile heritage.
• Launched by:It was launched by the Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region (MDoNER).
• Executing Agency: It is executed by the North Eastern Handicrafts and Handlooms Development Corporation (NEHHDC).
• Key Aspects of 'Padma Doree':
  • Convergence of Traditions: It is developed across two culturally significant regions of India, and represents a convergence of textile traditions and generational knowledge systems.
  • Environmental Integrity: Padma Doree is crafted using natural dyes, drawing from time-honoured dyeing practices that yield depth and environmental integrity.
  • Ethical Philosophy: In alignment with an ethical philosophy, Padma Doree adopts a non-violent silk approach, ensuring that silkworms are not harmed in its production.

About Fiber Optic Drones:

• Fiber optic drones are specialized unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) that integrate fiber optic technology.
• Working of Fiber Optic Drones:
  • Fiber optic drones operate by using optical fiber cables instead of traditional wireless systems.
  • These are operated while connected to the ground through a fiber optic tether.
  • Unlike regular drones that rely on radio frequencies for communication and batteries for power, these drones receive both data connectivity and often electrical power through the
• Advantages:
  • Real-time Data: It operates at near-zero latency transmission, ideal for surveillance, targeting and network maintenance.
  • Improved Coverage: These can be operated in GPS-denied, RF-jammed environments like electronic warfare zones.
  • High Security: These drones carry optical fiber cables, ensuring the transmission of large data volumes with minimal signal interference.  
  • Reliable Transmission: These drones provide high-speed, reliable data transmission over vast distances.
• Applications: Military and Drone Warfare, Telecommunications and Infrastructure Maintenance, Emergency and Disaster Response.

About Mount Dukono:

• It is an active volcano located on Halmahera Island in North Maluku, Indonesia.
• It is a complex volcano presenting a broad, low profile with multiple summit peaks and overlapping craters.
• It is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, a region with high tectonic activity.
• Since its first eruption in 1933, the volcano has exhibited significant volcanic activity, including frequent eruptions and smoke emissions.
  • Eruptions have been explosive and also produced lava flows and mudflows.
  • It often produces ash plumes that can reach several kilometers into the atmosphere.
• The tropical rainforest surrounding the volcano is home to various endemic flora and fauna species.

About Korowai Tribe:

• The Korowai tribe is a group of indigenous people who live in the southeastern part of Papua, Indonesia.
• The tribe has unique cultural practices and a unique way of living in treehouses high above the ground.
• The Korowai people have a deep connection to the forest, which they rely on for their survival.
• They hunt and gather food from the forest, including wild animals and plants.
• They live high up in the trees which they built on the tree trunks.
• The Korowai people were totally disconnected from the outside world until the 1970s.
• They have been sensationalised in modern media for their association with cannibalism, a practice of eating human flesh.
  • While it is believed that the tribe historically practised cannibalism as part of their spiritual and social beliefs, it has largely faded over time.

About Leprosy:

• Leprosy, also known as Hansen’s disease, is an infectious disease caused by a type of bacteria called Mycobacterium leprae.
• It primarily affects the skin, the peripheral nerves, the mucosa of the upper respiratory tract, and the eyes.
• It is a neglected tropical disease (NTD).
• People affected by the disease often face social isolation and discrimination, particularly in regions where the illness is more common.
• Transmission:
  • The disease is transmitted through droplets from the nose and mouth of an untreated case of leprosy, containing the causative agent, following prolonged, close contact.
  • The disease does not spread through casual contact (like shaking hands or hugging, sharing meals or sitting next to each other).
  • The patient stops transmitting the disease upon initiation of treatment.
• Treatment:
  • Leprosy is a curable disease.
  • The currently recommended treatment regimen consists of three medicines (dapsone, rifampicin, and clofazimine) and is referred to as multi-drug therapy (MDT).

About Girnar Wildlife Sanctuary:

• It is located in the Junagadh district of Gujarat.
• It spans the rugged terrain of the Girnar hills, which are a part of the Saurashtra region.
• Girnar has a rich cultural and religious significance with Hindu and Jain temples situated on the hills.
• Flora:
  • Predominantly dry deciduous forests with species like teak, dhak, acacia, and other drought-resistant plants.
  • The sanctuary supports a mix of dense forest, open scrub, and grasslands.
• Fauna:
  • It is filled with abundant wildlife, including Asiatic lions, spotted deer, Sambar, Chousinghas, Chinkaras, leopards, Indian golden jackals, and around 300 species of birds, which include both resident and migratory.
  • It serves as an extension of the Gir National Park’s lion population.

About DAMPE Satellite:

• DAMPE (Dark Matter Particle Explorer), also known as “Wukong”, is China's first astronomical satellite.
• It is a powerful space telescope for high-energy gamma-ray, electron, and cosmic ray detection.
• The satellite was launched into a polar, sun-synchronous orbit with an altitude of 500 km in 2015.
• The main scientific objective of DAMPE is to measure electrons and photons with much higher energy resolution and energy reach than achievable with existing space experiments in order to identify possible dark matter signatures.
• It also has great potential in advancing the understanding of the origin and propagation mechanism of high-energy cosmic rays, as well as in new discoveries in high-energy gamma astronomy.

About Hepatitis:

• It is an inflammation of the liver that is caused by a variety of infectious viruses and non-infectious agents.
• It is commonly the result of a viral infection, but there are other possible causes of hepatitis.
  • These include autoimmune hepatitis and hepatitis that occurs as a secondary result of medications, drugs, toxins, and alcohol.
  • Autoimmune hepatitis is a disease that occurs when your body makes antibodies against your liver tissue.
• Common Symptoms: Fatigue, flu-like symptoms, dark urine, pale stool, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, unexplained weight loss, yellow skin and eyes, which may be signs of jaundice.
• Classification of Hepatitis Virus:
  • Hepatitis A: It is the result of an infection with the hepatitis A virus (HAV). This type of hepatitis is an acute, short-term disease.
  • Hepatitis B: The hepatitis B virus (HBV) causes hepatitis B. This is often an ongoing, chronic condition.
  • Hepatitis C: It comes from the hepatitis C virus (HCV). It is among the most common bloodborne viral infections and typically presents as a long-term condition.
  • Hepatitis D: It is a rare form of hepatitis that only occurs in conjunction with hepatitis B
    • The hepatitis D virus (HDV) causes liver inflammation like other strains, but a person cannot contract HDV without an existing hepatitis B infection.
  • Hepatitis E: It is a waterborne disease that results from exposure to the hepatitis E virus (HEV).
    • It is mainly found in areas with poor sanitation and typically results from ingesting fecal matter that contaminates the water supply.
  • Treatment:
    • There are vaccines that can help protect against many hepatitis viruses.
    • There are vaccines for prevention against Hepatitis A, B and D.
    • However, there is no vaccine for Hepatitis C or E.

About Whitley Awards:

• It is often called as the “Green Oscars,”
• It recognises grassroots conservation leaders in the Global South.
• It is given by the UK charity Whitley Fund for Nature (WFN).
• It provides winners with £50,000 in project funding over one year to scale up local solutions to biodiversity loss.

Key Facts about Himalayan salamander

• It is a lizard-like amphibian species.
• Although it resembles a lizard, it lacks scales on its body.
• Distribution: It is endemic to India (the Darjeeling region), Nepal and Bhutan,
• Salamanders return to their natal site to breed and lay eggs—a process known as philopatry, which makes them highly vulnerable to changes in habitat and wetland health.
• Cultural Significance: The wetlands where Himalayan salamanders breed are culturally revered water bodies, associated with local deities and rituals.
• Conservation Status: IUCN: Vulnerable

Key Facts about Indian skimmer

• It is one of the three species that belong to the skimmer genus Rynchops in the family Laridae. 
• It gets its name from the way it feeds, flying low over the water surface and ‘skimming’for fish.
• Habitat: It occurs primarily on larger, sandy, lowland rivers, around lakes and adjacent marshes.
• Distribution: It is mainly found in India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, with some populations extending to Nepal and Myanmar.

In India, one of the key areas for spotting Indian Skimmers is the Chambal River.

Conservation status: IUCN: Endangered

About Jamaica:

• It is a large island nation located in the west-central Caribbean in the Greater Antilles archipelago.
• It is situated to the south of Cuba; to the west of Hispaniola Islands (Haiti & the Dominican Republic) and to the northwest of Cayman Islands.
• It is surrounded by the Caribbean Sea.
• Capital City: Kingston
• Geographical Features of Jamaica:
  • Climate: The tropical climate is influenced by the sea and the northeast trade winds, which are dominant throughout the year.
  • Major Mountains: It consists of Blue Mountains (highest point), John Crow Mountains, Don Figuero Mountains, Santa Cruz, etc.
  • Major Rivers: Rio Minho (the longest river of Jamaica), Black River, Rio Cobre
  • Natural Resources: Jamaica's main natural resources are bauxite, gypsum and limestone.

What is Aarogya Maitri?

• 'Aarogya Maitri' project is a humanitarian initiative that extends India's commitment to global health and disaster relief.
• The Bharat Health Initiative for Sahyog Hita & Maitri (BHISHM), part of Project Aarogya Maitri, is an innovative emergency medical aid program.
  • At its core are compact, portable "mini cubes" filled with essential medicines and equipment, designed for rapid deployment in various emergencies.

About INS Mahendragiri:

• It is the sixth ship of Nilgiri Class (Project 17A).
• It was designed by Warship Design Bureau (WDB).
• It was built at Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited (MDSL) Mumbai.
• Features of INS Mahendragiri:
  • Propulsion: These ships are configured with Combined Diesel or Gas (CODOG) propulsion plants.
  • Comprising a diesel engine and a gas turbine that drive a Controllable Pitch Propeller (CPP) on each shaft, and state-of-the-art Integrated Platform Management System (IPMS)
  • Armaments: The potent weapon and sensor suite comprises anti-surface, anti-air, and anti-submarine warfare systems.

What are Project 17A frigates?

• These are versatile multi-mission platforms designed to address current and emerging challenges in the maritime domain. 
• The five already delivered to the Navy are INS Nilgiri, INS Himgiri, INS Udaygiri, INS Taragiri and INS Vindhyagiri.
• Armaments: P17A ships are fitted with an advanced weapon and sensor suite like MF-STAR active phased array radar, BrahMos supersonic cruise missiles, and Barak-8 long-range surface-to-air missiles, designed for superior anti-air, anti-surface and anti-submarine warfare.

About Incentive Scheme for Promotion of Critical Mineral Recycling:

• It is part of the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM), which is aimed at building the domestic capacity of and supply chain resilience in critical minerals. 
• Time Period: The Scheme will have a tenure of six years from Financial Year 2025-26 to Financial Year 2030-31. 
• Features:
  • Eligible feedstock is e-waste, Lithium Ion Battery (LIB) scrap, and scrap other than e-waste and LIB scraps. 
  • Expected beneficiaries will be both large, established recyclers, as well as small, new recyclers (including start-ups), for whom one-third of the scheme outlay has been earmarked. 
  • It is applicable to investments in new units as well as expansion of capacity and modernization and diversification of existing units. 
  • It provides incentive for the recycling value chain, which is involved in the actual extraction of critical minerals, and not the value chain involved in only black mass production.
  • The incentives include a 20% capital subsidy on plant and machinery for projects that commence production within the stipulated timeframe and an operational subsidy tied to incremental sales. 
  • The operational support will be provided in tranches—40% in the second year and 60% in the fifth year—on meeting specific sales thresholds.
  • To ensure wider participation, the total incentive has been capped at ₹50 crore per large entity and ₹25 crore per small entity, with limits on operating subsidies of ₹10 crore and ₹5 crore, respectively.